Contents: Preface. Introduction. Part I: The Environment To
Be Perceived.The Animal And The Environment. Medium,
Substances, Surfaces. The Meaningful Environment. Part II:
The Information For Visual Perception.The Relationship
Between Stimulation And Stimulus Information. The Ambient
Optic Array. Events And The Information For Perceiving
Events. The Optical Information For Self-Perception. The
Theory Of Affordances. …
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The Psychophysics Toolbox is a software package that
supports visual psychophysics. Its routines provide an
interface between a high-level interpreted language (MATLAB
on the Macintosh) and the video display hardware. A set of
example programs is included with the Toolbox distribution.
Methods are described for the isolation, complementation and
mapping of mutants of Caenorhabditis elegans, a small
free-living nematode worm. About 300 EMS-induced mutants
affecting behavior and morphology have been characterized
and about one hundred genes have been defined. Mutations in
77 of these alter the movement of the animal. Estimates of
the induced mutation frequency of both the visible mutants
and X chromo…
Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing
with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting
novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and
staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response
inhibition (self-control--resisting temptations and
resisting acting impulsively) and interference control
(selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working
memory, and cognitive flexib…
The prefrontal cortex has long been suspected to play an
important role in cognitive control, in the ability to
orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal
goals. Its neural basis, however, has remained a mystery.
Here, we propose that cognitive control stems from the
active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal
cortex that represent goals and the means to achieve them.
They provide bia…
A baseline or control state is fundamental to the
understanding of most complex systems. Defining a baseline
state in the human brain, arguably our most complex system,
poses a particular challenge. Many suspect that left
unconstrained, its activity will vary unpredictably. Despite
this prediction we identify a baseline state of the normal
adult human brain in terms of the brain oxygen extraction
fraction or OEF. The…
The VideoToolbox is a free collection of two hundred C
subroutines for Macintosh computers that calibrates and
controls the computer-display interface to create accurately
specified visual stimuli. High-level platform-independent
languages like MATLAB are best for creating the numbers that
describe the desired images. Low-level, computer-specific
VideoToolbox routines control the hardware that transforms
those number…
This is the first volume of the proposed many-sectioned
"Handbook" in which the American Physiological Society
intends to present comprehensively the entire field of
physiology. The scope and depth of the work may be estimated
by realizing that the Section on Neurophysiology alone will
comprise three volumes. The present work covers the
following principal topics, all but the first of which are
divided into several c…
This paper describes FieldTrip, an open source software
package that we developed for the analysis of MEG, EEG, and
other electrophysiological data. The software is implemented
as a MATLAB toolbox and includes a complete set of
consistent and user-friendly high-level functions that allow
experimental neuroscientists to analyze experimental data.
It includes algorithms for simple and advanced analysis,
such as time-fr…
An MRI time course of 512 echo-planar images (EPI) in
resting human brain obtained every 250 ms reveals
fluctuations in signal intensity in each pixel that have a
physiologic origin. Regions of the sensorimotor cortex that
were activated secondary to hand movement were identified
using functional MRI methodology (FMRI). Time courses of low
frequency (< 0.1 Hz) fluctuations in resting brain were
observed to have a hig…
Thirty years of brain imaging research has converged to
define the brain's default network-a novel and only recently
appreciated brain system that participates in internal modes
of cognition. Here we synthesize past observations to
provide strong evidence that the default network is a
specific, anatomically defined brain system preferentially
active when individuals are not focused on the external
environment. Analys…
Abstract Statistical parametric maps are spatially extended
statistical processes that are used to test hypotheses about
regionally specific effects in neuroimaging data. The most
established sorts of statistical parametric maps (e.g.,
Friston et al. [1991]: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:690–699;
Worsley et al. [1992]: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:900–918)
are based on linear models, for example ANCOVA, correlation
coef…
Bartlett viewed thinking as a high level skill exhibiting
ballistic properties that he called its “point of no
return”. This paper explores one aspect of cognition through
the use of a simple model task in which human subjects are
asked to commit attention to a position in visual space
other than fixation. This instruction is executed by
orienting a covert (attentional) mechanism that seems
sufficiently time locked t…
The capacity to predict future events permits a creature to
detect, model, and manipulate the causal structure of its
interactions with its environment. Behavioral experiments
suggest that learning is driven by changes in the
expectations about future salient events such as rewards and
punishments. Physiological work has recently complemented
these studies by identifying dopaminergic neurons in the
primate whose fluc…
Information processing in the cerebral cortex involves
interactions among distributed areas. Anatomical
connectivity suggests that certain areas form local
hierarchical relations such as within the visual system.
Other connectivity patterns, particularly among association
areas, suggest the presence of large-scale circuits without
clear hierarchical relations. In this study the organization
of networks in the human c…
Microglial-neuronal interactions are essential for brain
physiopathology. In this framework, recent data have changed
the concept of microglia from essentially macrophagic cells
to crucial elements in maintaining neuronal homeostasis and
function through the release of neuroprotective molecules.
Using proteomic analysis, here we identify copper-zinc
superoxide dismutase (SOD1) as a protein produced and
released by cu…
The GABAergic neurotransmission is a highly conserved system
that has been attributed to various regulatory events. There
has been a notable number of studies on the importance of
GABAergic neurotransmission, both excitatory and inhibitory,
in neurogenesis and central nervous system development
including its control of neuronal cell proliferation and
migration, synaptogenesis, dendrite formation and branching,
and ne…
During performance of attention-demanding cognitive tasks,
certain regions of the brain routinely increase activity,
whereas others routinely decrease activity. In this study,
we investigate the extent to which this task-related
dichotomy is represented intrinsically in the resting human
brain through examination of spontaneous fluctuations in the
functional MRI blood oxygen level-dependent signal. We
identify two di…
The field of neuroscience has, after a long period of
looking the other way, again embraced emotion as an
important research area. Much of the progress has come from
studies of fear, and especially fear conditioning. This work
has pinpointed the amygdala as an important component of the
system involved in the acquisition, storage, and expression
of fear memory and has elucidated in detail how stimuli
enter, travel th…
The brain's default mode network consists of discrete,
bilateral and symmetrical cortical areas, in the medial and
lateral parietal, medial prefrontal, and medial and lateral
temporal cortices of the human, nonhuman primate, cat, and
rodent brains. Its ...Read More
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Neuroscience glossary
Neuron
A nerve cell that sends electrical and chemical signals.
Synapse
The junction where one neuron passes a signal to another.
Action potential
A brief electrical spike that travels along a neuron’s axon.
Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger released at synapses, such as dopamine, serotonin or glutamate.
Neuroplasticity
The brain’s ability to change its connections with experience.
Glia
Support cells in the nervous system, including astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes.
Hippocampus
A brain region important for forming new memories and finding your way.
Cortex
The folded outer layer of the brain, involved in perception, thought and movement.
EEG
Electroencephalography: records the brain’s electrical activity from the scalp.
fMRI
Functional MRI: tracks blood-oxygen changes as an indirect sign of brain activity.
Optogenetics
Using light to switch genetically modified neurons on or off.
Connectome
A map of the connections between neurons.
Blood-brain barrier
A tight layer of cells that controls what passes from the blood into the brain.
Neurodegeneration
The gradual loss of neurons, as in Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s disease.
Peer review
Expert checking of a paper before it is published.
Preprint
A paper shared publicly before peer review.
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